Fig. 1

Perspectives on the role of HMGB1 in epilepsy. HMGB1 exerts its epilepsy-promoting effects mainly by acting on receptors such as TLR4 and RAGE, activating their downstream IL-1β and NF-κB, which in turn act with glutamate receptors such as NMDA receptors to promote hyperexcitablilty and epilepsy. However, many questions remain to be resolved as listed in the schematic