Fig. 1

The role of inflammation in epileptic seizure and epilepsy. A cascade of events unfolds after brain injury that triggers central inflammation and alters normal neuronal connections in the hippocampus. Meanwhile, systemic inflammatory diseases cause inflammation in the peripheral tissues, accelerating the accumulation of inflammatory agents. This dual inflammation, both in the peripheral and central systems, contributes to the weakening of the protective BBB by enhancing the levels of inflammatory agents. This compromised barrier permits the infiltration of immune cells, initiating heightened neuronal activity and further amplifying the production of inflammatory agents. The uncontrolled inflammation in both peripheral and central regions, coupled with the compromised blood-brain barrier, sets the stage for structural changes in synaptic connections within the hippocampus. These processes culminate in the progression of epilepsy. Adapted from Rana and Musto [13]