Table 3 Anti-epileptic effects of anti-inflammatory treatments in animal models or patients
Drug | Experimental model or clinical patients | Anti-epileptic effects | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
IL-1β/IL-1R signaling | |||
VX-765 (A selective inhibitor of caspase-1/ ICE) | KA-induced mice that are refractory to some common anti-convulsant drugs. | VX-765 shows anti- convulsant activities. | [178] |
Electrical rapid kindling in rats | No kindling development after VX-765 treatment. | [179] | |
Drug-resistant focal- onset epilepsy (adult patients) | The mean percent reduction in seizure rates is 15.6% in the VX-765 group and 7.0% in the control group. | [180] | |
Anakinra (An IL-1R antagonist) | Acute phase of febrile infection-related epilepsy syndrome (children) | Reduce the total number of seizures. | [45] |
Drug-resistant epilepsy (children and adolescents) | Attenuate clinical seizure activity. | [181] | |
HMGB1/TLR4 signaling | |||
HMGB1 monoclonal antibody | Maximal electroshock seizure-induced acute epilepsy in mice | Attenuate MES-induced acute seizures. | [182] |
PTZ-induced acute epilepsy in mice | Attenuate PTZ-induced acute seizures. | [182] | |
KA-induced chronic epilepsy in mice | Alleviate the severity of KA-induced chronic epilepsy. | [182] | |
COX signaling | |||
Nimesulide (A COX-2 selective inhibitor) | Electrical rapid kindling in mice | Attenuate the kindling development. | [183] |
KA-induced seizures in mice | Pre- or post-treatment aggravates KA-induced seizures. | [96] | |
Aspirin (A COX inhibitor) | Focal onset epilepsy (adults) | Higher dose correlates with fewer seizures. | [184] |
Sturge–Weber syndrome (children and adolescents) | In a group of 58 subjects, 91% of them on aspirin have good final seizure scores. | [185] | |
TNF signaling | |||
Adalimumab (An anti-TNF monoclonal antibody) | Rasmussen encephalitis (adults) | Decrease seizure frequency in 5 of 11 patients. | [64] |
IL-6 signaling | |||
Tocilizumab (An IL-6 receptor inhibitor) | New-onset refractory SE (adults) | SE is terminated in 6 of 7 patients; 2 patients have severe adverse effects. | [51] |
Complement | |||
PMX53 (A C5ar1 antagonist) | 6 Hz and corneal kindling epilepsy mouse models | Decrease seizure severity and improve seizure threshold. | [186] |
Microglia | |||
Minocycline (A microglial activation inhibitor) | Drug-resistant focal epilepsy (adults) | Reduce seizure frequency. | [187] |